Chemical Senses Vol. 30 No. suppl 1 © Oxford University
Press 2005; all rights reserved
Factors Contributing to Individual Differences in Sucrose Preference
Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
Correspondence to be sent to: M. Yanina Pepino, e-mail: ypepino{at}monell.org
Key words: development, preference, race/ethnicity, sweet taste
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Introduction |
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Although heightened throughout childhood and adolescence, sweet taste preference declines during late adolescence (Desor et al., 1977
;
Desor and Beauchamp, 1987). Despite
such age-related changes in sweet preferences, individual variation, due to both genetics
(Bartoshuk, 2000) and experience
(Beauchamp and Moran, 1982, 1984),
exists at both ends of the age spectrum (Desor
et al., 1977;
Beauchamp and Moran, 1982). For
example, infants and teenagers of African descent preferred significantly higher levels
of sucrose when compared to similarly aged Caucasians (Desor et al., 1977;
Bacon et al., 1994).
Moreover, experience with sugar water during infancy results in greater preference for
sweet tastes during the second year of life (Beauchamp and Moran, 1984). The goal of the present study
was twofold. First, we determined whether racial and ethnic differences in sweet
preference are present during childhood and adulthood. Secondly, we explored whether
early exposure to sweetened water modifies sweet preferences during childhood. |
Materials and methods |
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TopIntroductionMaterials and methodsResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences |
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Subjects
We tested 62 children and 55 mothers of African-American, non-Hispanic descent and 66
children and 56 mothers of non-Hispanic, European descent, hereafter referred to as Black
and White, respectively. Included in this sample were 17 sibling pairs. The children
ranged in age from 6 to 10 years (mean = 7.8 ± 0.1 years) and the mothers
were, on average, 36.0 ± 0.6 years. Each child’s race/ethnicity was defined
by mother’s report of the racial background of both herself and the biological
father, according to standard US Census categories. All children and parents were
racially concordant. We use the term race/ethnicity herein when describing our groups
because it best represents both the genetic and cultural components of the sample
(Sankar and Cho, 2002). All testing
procedures were approved by the Office of Regulatory Affairs at the University of
Pennsylvania and informed consent was obtained from each mother and assent from each
child 7 years of age or older.
Procedures
Children and their mothers were individually tested with identical procedures to allow
for comparisons. A forced-choice, paired comparison, tracking technique which avoids
response bias was used to assess sucrose preferences (Cowart and Beauchamp, 1990). In brief, subjects were
presented with pairs of solutions differing in sucrose concentration (0.09, 0.18, 0.35,
0.70 and 1.05M). They were asked to taste the solutions without swallowing and point to
which of the pair they liked better. Each subsequent pair was then determined by the
subject’s preceding preference choice. The entire task was then repeated with
stimulus pairs presented in reverse order. The most preferred solution for each subject
was the geometric mean of the sucrose concentrations chosen during the two trials.
Demographics, anthropometry and experience with sugar water
Mothers were queried about several socio-demographic variables and all but 20 answered questions regarding the practice of feeding sweetened water to their children when they were infants. From these latter data, two groups were formed: those who were frequently fed sweetened water and those who were never or rarely (<10 times) fed sweetened water. Children were weighed and measured for height (Detecto Model 439, Physician Scale; Webb City, MO) and body mass index (BMI, kg/m2) was computed.
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Results |
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TopIntroductionMaterials and methodsResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences |
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Demographics and anthropometry
Black mothers were significantly younger (33.6 ± 0.8 versus 38.4 ± 0.7 years) and more likely to be single (71% versus 2%), with lower household incomes and fewer years of education (13.4 ± 0.2 versus 14.8 ± 0.3 years) when compared to White mothers (all Ps < 0.001). There were significant effects of race/ethnicity on children’s age (P < 0.025); Black children were older (8.1 ± 0.2 years) than White children (7.4 ± 0.1 years). No statistical differences were observed between the two groups in the children’s BMI categories, however. Despite the various demographic and age differences between the two racial/ethnic groups, further analyses revealed that none of these measured demographic factors were significantly related to the level of sucrose preferred by either children or adults.
Sweet preferences and practice of feeding sugar water
As a group, children preferred significantly higher concentrations of sucrose than
mothers [t(237 df) = 4.07, P < 0.0001]. Black
children (P < 0.001) and mothers (P < 0.001) preferred
significantly higher concentrations of sucrose than White children and mothers,
respectively (see Figure
1). Although 38% of the Black
children were routinely fed sugar water as babies, this custom was experienced by only
6% of the White children [ 
2(df = 1) = 16.50,
P < 0.0001]. However, regardless of race/ethinicity, early exposure to
sugar water was related to the level of sucrose preferred during childhood
[t(106 df) = 2.20; P = 0.03]. Children who were
routinely fed sugar water during infancy preferred significantly higher levels of sucrose
(0.66 ± 0.07 M) when compared to those who were rarely or minimally exposed (0.48
± 0.04 M).
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Discussion |
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TopIntroductionMaterials and methodsResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences |
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Consistent with previous findings in infants (Beauchamp and Moran, 1982
) and adolescents (Desor et al., 1977;
Bacon et al., 1994), Black
children preferred significantly higher concentrations of sucrose when compared to White
children. Although mothers preferred significantly lower levels of sucrose than children,
similar race/ethnic differences were also observed in the adults. Several explanations,
not mutually exclusive, may account for these differences.
First, demographic factors, such as income, can play a role in food availability
(Drewnowski, 2003). Although the
present study revealed significant socioeconomic differences between Black and White
mothers, these differences were not related to the level of sucrose preferred by children
or adults (see also
Desor et al., 1977).
However, we acknowledge that economic factors may contribute to consumer food choices
since sugars, as well as fats, constitute one of the most palatable and low-priced
nutrients (Drewnowski, 2003).
Secondly, experiential influences may contribute to ethnic differences in sweet
preferences. The practice of feeding sugar water to infants, more evident in Black
mothers, resulted in heightened sweet preferences during the second year of life
(Beauchamp and Moran, 1984) and in
children aged 6–10 years (present study). Likewise, the greater desire and liking
for intensely sweet tasting foods and beverages in both young and elderly
African-Americans (Schiffman et al.,
2000) may play a role in differential exposure and ingestion to sweet tasting
foods. Through familiarization, children develop a sense of what should, or should not,
taste sweet (Beauchamp and Cowart,
1985).
Thirdly, the heightened preferences for sweets may be related to the physiological
and analgesic properties of sugars (Blass and
Hoffmeyer, 1991;
Barr et al., 1994). Of
interest is the recent finding that African-Americans experienced significantly higher
levels of stress compared to non-Hispanic Whites (Turner and Avison, 2003). Higher levels of stress are
associated with great desire for sweet tastes among young Black adults when compared to
similarly aged White adults (Schiffman et
al., 2000;
Dallman et al., 2003).
Whether African-Americans are more sensitive to the physiological effects of sweet tastes
or are more likely to eat sweets to cope with stress is not yet known. Similarly, genetic
variation may contribute to differences in sweet taste perception and preference
(McDaniel and Reed, 2004) as well as
differences in the brain mechanisms that underlie the rewarding and analgesic properties
of sweet tastes.
Consistent with previous research (Desor
et al., 1977;
Desor and Beauchamp, 1987), children
as a group preferred significantly higher levels of sucrose than adults. The study of the
analgesic properties of sweet tastes and sweet taste preferences across the life span,
and how it is affected by cultural practices, race/ethnicity and genetics is a research
area that needs to be fully explored.
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Acknowledgements |
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TopIntroductionMaterials and methodsResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences |
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This work was supported by grant NIH AA09523 and Monell Institutional Funds.
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References |
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